Gendered differences, parenthood, and leader emergence: Investigating a motherhood penalty and a fatherhood advantage

Abstract

Research on the motherhood penalty and the fatherhood advantage is limited in its direct comparisons between men and women, and is complicated by conflicting findings. In my dissertation, I aim to replicate both the motherhood penalty and the fatherhood advantage and expand their nomological network by researching boundary conditions and mechanisms through which they may occur. In Study 1, I replicate the motherhood penalty using a nationally representative sample, the British Cohort Study, and thereby discover a fatherhood advantage: compared to mothers, fathers are more likely to gain leader role occupancy and are less likely to lose leadership positions following a partner’s pregnancy. Study 2 used survey methodology to (a) replicate Study 1 findings and (b) explore whether activities parents engaged in during their parental leave, as well as the support parents received from their partners and supervisors, influenced their careers upon their return to work. Findings from Study 2 reveal the presence of a motherhood penalty and a fatherhood advantage in a contemporary context and point to the roles of domestic labour and supervisor support in shaping these relationships. Finally, for Study 3 I designed an experiment where I manipulated the gender, and length of parental leave of a job applicant for a leadership position. I then measured organizational decision-makers’ perceptions of how much choice the applicant had in taking their parental leave, as well as their perceptions of the applicant’s warmth, competence, agency, and commitment. Finally, I measured leadership emergence. Findings from Study 3 reveal the importance of including length of leave in research on the effects parental leave on parents’ careers, as well as the perceptions organizational decision-makers have regarding how much choice parents have in their decision to take a leave. Taken together, these studies reveal the persistence of a motherhood penalty and fatherhood advantage with respect to parents’ leader emergence across different contexts and methods. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Suggestions for future research are offered.